EVALUATION OF LAYBACK SPIN IN FIGURE SKATING

Layback spin is considered as one of the most beautiful and elegant spins performed in fi gure skating. It is also one of the required spins in competitive short program in female category. Different techniques of executing layback spin with variations in changing the positions of free parts of the body, as well as the evaluation of layback spin in accordance with ISU rules and regulations, which have been used in all International Skating Federation competitions since 2004 (World and European championships, Olympic Games) are presented in this paper. Due to very diffi cult position of the body while performing a layback spin, it is essential that the skaters who want to master it should have excellent agility (especially of the spinal column and shoulder and knee joints) and balance. Layback spin performance requires signifi cant skating knowledge, so it cannot be performed by beginners. Depending on the fl exibility and creativity, a skater can execute various positions of the head, arms, body and free leg while performing a layback spin. In some cases, these variations can increase the level of diffi culty, and in others only the mark given for executing this spin.


INTRODUCTION
Figure skating is a winter Olympic sport in which skaters in various competitive disciplines (male and female single and pair skating, ice dance and synchronized skating) perform their compositions to music on ice.
Apart from its overall infl uence on motor and functional abilities, fi gure skating develops musical and creative abilities and contributes to the development of space and time perception, since all skating elements and movements in competitions are performed in accordance with music.
Historically speaking, competitors in fi gure skating fi rst competed in precise execution of compulsory fi gures, i.e. in their ability to perform geo-metrical circles as regularly as possible, with a required type of spin on the certain part (halfway of one third) of the circle, as well as performing "special fi gures" which the competitors themselves thought up according to certain requirements.This is how this sport got its name in some of the languages (fi gure skating in English, фигурное катание in Russian).
During the last thirty years skating has gone through signifi cant changes, as well as the skating competitions.The transformation of fi gure skating began by gradual changes in scoring system during the beginning of the nineteen eighties, and even more so during the nineteen nineties, when compulsory fi gures were eliminated from competitions.While they were performed, compulsory fi gures had a signifi cant infl uence on the competition results -as much as 50%, and even more so in the past.They required long and painstaking work on skating technique only.The training of compulsory fi gures technique was not particularly demanding physically, but it took a long time (3-4 years at least, long hours spent exercising on ice) to achieve average results in competitions.Considerably less time was spent training outside ice rinks, which is not the case today when skaters need to develop their overall motor abilities.
After the reform of competition program during the 1988-1989 season and cancellation of compulsory fi gures as a part of the competition program in singles, short program was introduced as part of the competition.
Skaters (both in singles and pairs) still compete by performing two compositions, which have not changed signifi cantly when compared to the previous period (until 2004), but are evaluated in a different way.In senior category, short program is performed, with seven required elements, where repetition of elements is not allowed, and free skating (which can consist of not more than twelve or thirteen skating elements) in which the choice of elements is somewhat less strict, with the possibility of repeating jumps.Dancing pairs also compete in two compositions -short dance (with required elements and to the required rhythm) and free dance.
Two years after the scandal at the Winter Olympic Games in 2002, when an investigation was conducted and it was discovered that standings of competitors were set in advance by the judges, International Skating Union (ISU) adopted a new scoring system , which has been accepted in all main skating competitions since 2004.The old scoring system "SYSTEM 6.0" (OBO system) was the offi cial scoring system in all fi gure skating competitions until 2004.The judges were required to compare skaters' performances and decide on two marks (for technique and artistic impression), the maximum mark being 6.0).
With the introduction of new code of points, overall picture of fi gure skating has changed, both among the skaters and the audience, since each executed element is evaluated separately.Skaters are required to be both precise and accurate when performing each separate element.
Two committees are in charge of judging the skater' programs: panel of judges consisting of up to nine judges who mark and a referee (they are in charge of successfulness and precision of performed elements, and they mark the components) and technical jury which consists of a "technical specialist" with his/her assistant and a technical controller (they classify the types of executed elements, evaluate levels of diffi culty on elements, decide on elements which are not allowed and falls).
Technical specialists can be coaches, skaters who no longer compete (top skaters who competed at least on the national level), ISU/International judges or referees.They are required to have supreme knowledge of various fi gure skating categories, to go through the training and pass the exam for a technical specialist.Technical controller is appointed in order to supervise the technical specialist, and is chosen among judges and referees.
Performance scope is calculated by adding the following: • element score, which consists of evaluating the level of diffi culty of each executed element (spins, steps and spirals) from 1-4, i.e. evaluating the number of rotations in the air (for jumps).This is done by the technical jury, while the panel of judges evaluates the successfulness and precision of each performed element, which increases or reduces the mark of each separate element, and • program component scores, where the fol lowing separate components are marked: skating skills, linking footwork and movements, performance/execution, interpreta tion and composition/choreography, which are evaluated by the panel of judges.
After the annual International Skating Federation Congress (which is always held in June), an "ISU Communication" is issued for each competitive discipline, valid for the forthcoming season.In it, one can fi nd all explanations, scoring scale, and movements which a skater can perform in order to get a higher mark for diffi culty in each element, no matter whether they are performed as part of short or free compositions.Special regulations and technical rules are changed once in three competitive seasons.
Studies dealing with the evaluation of competitive fi gure skating programs are not numerous in spite the frequent changes of competition rules.Fig 1990).This study is an attempt to contribute to the fi eld evaluation of a very important element in fi gure skating.
Double Axel and layback spin (spin in which body is bent backwards of sideways) are required elements of short composition in female category and this is why they are so important.When compared to other types of spin, layback spin is the most demanding one when it comes to fl exibility, if a competitor tends to achieve the highest level of diffi culty according to the code of points, and also the highest mark possible.

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE SKATING
Elements of fi gure skating vary according to the direction of skating, leg on which a competitor skates, edge and part of the skate used.Each skate has two edges (inside and outside), which defi ne the area of a skating shoe which touches the ice.This area is cylindrical (not fl at).In order to move on the ice and perform various elements, a skater uses various parts of his/her skate: tip, front, middle or back part of the skate, and he/she can also skate on the inside or outside edge of the skate, or on both edges.It is considered that general technique of the skater is better if he/she skates only on one of the edges (and on one foot), which means that he/she skates in loops (leaving the trail on ice in the shape of circles), not in straight lines.
In competition programs skaters execute the following basic elements: • step sequence

Spins
Spins are required elements of fi gure skating, in which a skater turns round his/her axis, his/her feet touching the ice.During preparation for and the beginning of a spin, a skater needs to change translational movement of the body on ice into rotation.There is a similarity between spins in ballet which are performed from a standing start with fewer spins and more energy, while in a spin performed on ice, due to lesser force of friction, one can achieve up to fi fty turns.The speed of spinning can be changed by increasing or decreasing the skater's momentum of inertia ( i.e. by bringing closer or moving free leg or arms further apart).
Spins are usually performed while skating on the front part of the blade, i.e. on the part right behind the tips, but can also be performed on the back part of the skate.
Three basic positions of the body while performing a spin are defi ned by ISU Communication: • upright (any position with skating leg extended or almost extended, which is not a camel position) -picture 1 and its variations • sit (squatting on one leg, the upper part of the skating leg at least parallel to the ice) -picture 2 and its variations • camel (scales position with free leg backwards with the knee higher than the hip level)picture 3 and its variations If during the execution of a spin body positions are changed, this is called "spin combinations".The number of different positions in spin combinations is unlimited.In spin combinations, positions which cannot be classifi ed as basic (upright, sit and camel) can be executed, and they are called intermediate positions.According to the way of entry, it can be: spin in one position (with a skating entry) and fl ying spin (spin which begins with a jump).
According to the foot on which they are performed, there are forward and backward spins.
Depending on the fl exibility, a skater can execute different variations of the positions of head, arms and free leg while performing a spin, which in some cases are evaluated as a higher level of diffi cul-ty, and sometimes increase the mark of the executed element.
According to ISU code of points, changes of the body position during the execution of a spin (variations of position) can be defi ned as: • Simple changes of body position (simple variations).Simple variations of position are movements of parts of the body, leg, arm, hand or head, which do not change the basic position of the main body core, but make it more diffi cult.Simpler variations cannot increase the level of diffi culty.
• More complex changes of body position (diffi cult variations).Diffi cult variations are movements of parts of the body, leg, arm, hand or head which require greater physical strength or agility and infl uence the balance of the main body core.Only variations belonging to this group can increase the level of diffi culty of elements.
Each spin should be fast, controlled and centered, and all these elements should be evaluated by judges when deciding on the fi nal mark for the executed spin.For an executed position to be in accordance with the code of points, and be taken into consideration, it has to fulfi ll certain requests and last for at least two rotations without changes.
Entry into a spin consists of executing a turn, a so called, "three turn", (a 180 degree turn, executed on one foot which stays on the ice, during which it is necessary to change the direction from forward to backward or vice versa, and also change the edge on which one skates), in order to change from front left edge of a skate to back inside edge on which the spin is executed.While executing a "three turn", the skate leaves the trail on the ice in the shape of number three.(Picture 4).Spin center.While performing a spin, a skater should rotate only around his/her vertical axis, not move in a translational way across the ice.Such a spin is defi ned as centered, and is one of the details which infl uence the judges' mark.Ideally, the trail left on ice, after an executed "three turn" should be a circle the centre and radius of which do not change (Picture 6a).Perfect ability to centre is not easy to achieve.A large number of skaters are not able to keep the centre of rotation in one place, but move in a translational way across the ice.This is called a "traveling spin".In Picture 6 there are examples of variously centered spins: in Picture 6b it is shown that the skater "traveled" while executing the spin before he/she centered it, which is acceptable.It is also acceptable for a skater to "travel" while executing the spin if translational movement is not in straight line, but in loops (Picture 6c).A spin which is not centered is shown in Picture 6d.

LAYBACK SPIN
A layback spin is one of the most beautiful and elegant spins performed in fi gure skating.It was performed for the fi rst time by a British skater Cecilia Colledge in the 1930ies.
This spin is mostly performed by women, and that is why it is sometimes referred to as "the female spin", since most men are not fl exible enough to perform this very demanding position (although some men are very good at performing it).It is one of required spins in short program for women, and it can also be executed as one of the possible positions in combination spin (in both programs and in all disciplines).In free skating it is possible to perform it in both male and female competitions (it is up to the skater), and if it is performed as a part of a spin executed only in one position.

Technique of performance and possible changes of position
In competition rule books, layback spin is defi ned as "layback or sideways leaning spin" -a spin with body bent backwards or sideways.Accordingly, apart from the basic spin position, which implies body and free leg bent backwards, spin can be performed with body bent sideways, towards the free leg which is also bent sideways.The most common one is the forward layback spin.Backward layback spin is executed less frequently, although it brings more points.
Starting position while performing a layback spin (forward or backward) is the same as in upright spin (Picture 8).It is essential that the spin should be well centered, the leg on which it is executed straight, and that the skater's shoulders in the same level and parallel with hips (arm and leg bent sideways).After achieving the balance, right leg should be curled backwards.The shin of the free leg is in horizontal level -parallel with the ice (knee and foot of the free leg kept at approximately same height).The ideal position of the free leg is exactly behind the standing leg, with knee at the same or slight-ly higher level with the knee of the standing leg.At the same time with the leg movement (from sideways to curled backwards inside), arms should be moved in front of the body and bent.Hips should be compensatively moved to the front according to the vertical axis of the body, making the bending of the body backwards easier to perform.While bending the body backwards, arms can be moved above the head and bent, with simultaneous bending of the head which fi nishes the movement.In the fi nal position, the head should be slightly above the shoulder level.Since the body is bent backwards, in order to achieve balance, it is necessary to move the hips forward.Some skaters are so fl exible that they can bend their backs so low that they are parallel to the ice.

Variations (changes) of position of arms in layback spin.
Regardless of the possible various positions of arms while performing the spin itself, they cannot infl uence the increase of the level of diffi culty of the spin itself.In most cases, variations of arm positions do not change the position of the main body core, but can make it more diffi cult.That is why they are considered as simple and do not increase the diffi culty of the spin, but can increase the mark of execution.In Picture 9 there are some examples of arm position variations while performing a layback spin: arms bent backwards inside (Picture 9a), left upwards, right arm backwards (Picture 9b), arms curled forward inside (Picture 9c) and basic arm positionarms kept forward, bent (Pictures 7).

Variations (changes) of leg positions in layback spin.
There are fewer possibilities to change leg positions while executing a layback spin.Variations of position of free leg are executed in three ways.The fi rst one regards the position of knee and foot of the free leg, where we have a co-called "open" position in which free leg is rotated in the hip joint, and the skate of the free leg is parallel to the ice -backwards outside (Pictures 10a) and "closed" position, where there is no rotation of the free leg in the hip joint, and the skate is in vertical plane -leg held close to the other one and curled (Picture 10b).The second variation of the position of free leg regards the height on which the free leg is held.There are: low positionfree leg is held next to the standing leg, in low curled backward position (Picture 10b); high position -shin of the free leg in horizontal backward position and the position in which free leg is between high and low positions, backwards out (Picture 10a).The third way is the position of the free leg, which can be bent (Picture 10b) or held straight in the knee joint (Pictures 10a) These variations of position are regarded as simple (they do not increase the level of diffi culty of layback spin, but can increase the number of points).The only exception is the low position of the free leg which, if performed skillfully, can visibly accelerate the speed of the spin, and therefore increase the level of diffi culty in layback spin performance.Biellmann position in fi gure skating is considered as a diffi cult variation of upright spin position and according to ISU rules is the position in which free foot is caught in one or both hands and pulled up above the head, close to the axis of rotation.(Picture 11).It was named after Denise Biellman, a Swiss skater who was a World and European champion, although she was not the fi rst skater to perform it (it has never been established offi cially who was the fi rst to perform this spin).
Picture 11.Biellmann position, skate held with one hand ISU rules defi ne that all three positions in which free leg is held at the same height as head but not necessarily above it, are considered as diffi cult variations of the position of upright spin, and are also applied to layback spin (Pictures 12a and 12b).One example of a diffi cult variation of the position is the position in which the skater's back is still bent backwards as in regular layback, and she holds the free leg with one hand (Picture 12b).Unlike other basic spins (camel, upright and sit), in layback spin it is not possible to change the skate's edge while rotating (at least it has not been done so far).The change of the edge while spinning would require the change of the part of the standing skate's area (from front part of the blade it is necessary to move to the back part -towards the heel), which has the change of edge as a consequence.Layback spin position is much more demanding regarding balance, and that is why such movement is considered as extremely diffi cult to achieve.Also, layback spin with fl ying entrance is also very rare, due to considerable danger of injury when jumping into the position of hyperextension of the spine.Korean skater Choi Ji Eun is one of the few skaters who managed to execute successfully a fl ying layback spin in 2005.

MARKING SYSTEM FOR LAYBACK SPINS IN COMPETITIONS
After the reform of competition program in season 1988-1989 and cancellation of compulsory fi gures as part of it for skaters in single category, layback spin became more signifi cant since it was a required element in short program for women.It is still as important today.Before the reform, it was performed as one of the spins of free choice in the long composition.
When performing a spin as a required element of short program it is necessary to stick to the following rules: • The minimum number of turns as a necessary element in layback spin is eight (8), • Change of leg is not allowed, • Changes of head position, arms position and free leg position as well as the change in speed of turning are allowed, • In short program it is not allowed to start with fl ying entrance, • While performing the required number of turns, all changes of position are allowed unless basic position of the main body core (backwards or sideways) is impaired, • After required eight (8) turns, Biellmann spin can be executed.
In free skating, it is possible to perform layback spin in both female and male categories, as chosen, as part of the spin which is performed only in one position (change of leg is allowed, as well as fl ying entrance) and it can be performed as one of the possible positions in combination spin, both in single and pair skating.
In Table 2, points which can be gained by executing layback spin according to the current ISU code of points are stated.In the column "Base" there is the number of points which is given if the spin is executed on the basic (fi rst) level of diffi culty, and in columns marked with different number of plusses (+) or minuses (-) the number of points which is added or deducted from the basic mark for well or poorly executed spin is stated.For example, for a really well executed layback spin on the second level of diffi culty, the skater will get 3.4 points (basic 1.9 -added 1.5).Also, a very poorly executed layback spin on the most diffi cult (fourth) level of diffi culty, can bring the skater only 1.7 points (2.7-1.0).
In Table 3, the characteristics which must be executed if the skater wants to achieve higher level of diffi culty, and also higher marks, both in single and pair skating.The number of characteristics necessary to reach a level are: two for level 2, three for level 3, four for level 4. Table 3. Table of the levels of diffi culty for spins in single and pair skating competitions Additional features for layback spin: 1.One change of position backwards-sideways or reverse, at least 3 turns in each position (counts also if the Layback spin is part of any other spin) 2. Biellmann position after layback spin (in short program after 8 turns in layback spin) Backward entry, change of edge and any type of diffi cult spin variation count as features that can increase the Level only once per program (in the fi rst spin they are attempted); The following requirements are required for levels 2-4 both in short program and in free skating: 1. for spin combinations with change of foot -all 3 basic positions; 2. for spins with change of foot -at least one basic position on each foot.In any spin with change of foot, the maximum number of features attained on one foot is two (2).

Remarks:
• Backward entry, change of edge and any type of diffi cult spin variation count as features that can increase the level of diffi culty only once per program (in the fi rst spin they are attempted); • In order for backward entry to be counted as a level feature, it is necessary to execute at least two turns on the back outside edge; • For camel, sit and layback spin a visible acceleration of rotation while executing the spin will be counted as a diffi cult variation.
In Table 4 a part from ISU Communication for the skating season 2010-11 is presented, concerning execution of layback spin with Guidelines for marking (GOE) skaters' performances.Apart from presenting guidelines for possible errors (Table 4), ISU Communication also states the criteria for evaluating spin executions (Table 5).The total mark for executing an element is calculated based on both aspects.It is important for a fi nal mark to include both the positive and the negative aspects, as well as the possible reductions that may apply.Final mark of the execution of an element is calculated fi rst by considering the positive aspects of the element (Table 5) thus giving the fi rst evaluation.After that, the judge reduces this mark according to the guidelines of possible errors (Table 4), which results in the fi nal mark for executing the element.
In order to decide on the fi rst mark, the judge has to consider all positive features of the executed layback spin (Table 5).The judge is free to decide on the number of characteristics necessary to give the positive mark, but general recommendation is as follows: • For +2: 2 features • For+2: 4 features • For +3: 6 or more features Table 5. Criteria for evaluating the execution of spins SPINS 1) good speed or acceleration during spin 2) ability to center a spin quickly 3) balanced rotations in all positions 4) clearly more than required number of turns 5) good position(s) (including height and air position in fl ying spins) 6) creativity and originality 7) good control throughout all phases 8) element matched to the musical structure

CONCLUSION
In accordance with the new system of judging, the aim of the skater in competition is to achieve the highest number of points possible for each separate element he/she executes.Concerning the layback spin, the features which result in extra points are the increased amplitude of movement, balance, coordination and accordance of individual parts of the body when changing the position of the body while performing the spin.These features were, naturally, important before the changes in the code of points for layback spin, but they could only infl uence the increase of mark for artistic impression, and did not bring extra points, like they do today.
Compared to the previous period, nowadays more attention is paid to exercising the execution of spins.Due to the new code of points, spins are very complex in today compositions (if a skater wants to achieve higher level of diffi culty and, together with it, a higher mark for the spin).In female competitions, points gained by successful execution of a layback spin with simper triple jumps can now make up to 10% of the mark for technical value of composition.Since a layback spin can be executed as part of spin combinations, its importance for gaining extra points is even more signifi cant.That is why considerable attention is paid to practicing this particular type of spin in contemporary fi gure skating.
fact whether a spin is executed on one foot or with change of foot, a spin can be: spin without change of foot or spin with change of foot.

Picture 4 .
Trail left on ice when executing a "three turn" It is essential that the circle executed on left foot (entrance) should be inside the circle which is executed on the right foot during preparation for the spin.In Picture 5 examples of the trails on ice when the entry is regular 5a and irregular 5b are shown.Picture 5а.Regular entry Picture 5b.Irregular entry

Picture 7 .
Layback spinLayback spin belongs to the group of upright spins, executed on one leg.The basic form of it would be: body bent backwards, arms bent in front of the body, (the third ballet position) and the free leg also bent backwards (Picture 7).

Picture 8 .
Starting position for upright or layback spin (rotation to the left) Picture 9а.Layback spin with arms bent backwards inside Picture 9b.Left arm upwards, right arm backwards Picture 9c Arms curled forward inside Picture 10а.Free leg held backwards Picture 10b.Free leg curled backwards, lowThe following variations (changes) of position of a layback spin are considered as diffi cult.They increase the level of diffi culty and can also infl uence the mark of the performance:• Change of the position of the main body core's vertical axis while performing a spin (change of position from bending backwards to sideways and reverse), is considered as a diffi cult variation of position if at least three rotations in each position are executed, • Visible acceleration of speed of rotation is also considered as diffi cult, • Biellmann position and similar positions after layback spin are considered as diffi cult spin variations.
Picture 12а Variation similar to Biellmann position, skate held with one hand Picture 12b.Layback spin positions when skate is held with one hand (skater's back is still bent backwards)

Spins 1 ) 3 )
Diffi cult variation in basic or (only for spin combinations) in intermediate position 2) Second diffi cult variation in basic position which must be signifi cantly different from the fi rst one: performed on the other leg (for a spin on one position with change of foot), in different position, different from the fi rst one (for spin combinations without change of foot), on the other leg and different position (for spin combinations with change of foot) Flying change of foot 4) Entrance from the back spin/diffi cult variation of fl ying entrance/ fl ying sit spin landing on the same foot as take-off or the other foot 5) Clear change of edge in sit (only from backward-inside to forward-outside) or camel spin 6) All three basic positions on both legs 7) Both directions immediately following each other in sit or camel spin 8) At least 8 turns without changes of position, leg or edge (in camel, sit, layback and diffi cult variation of upright spin), counts twice if repeated on another foot.

Table 1 .
Basic elements of compositions for separate disciplines • spiral sequence • jumps • spins and • specifi c elements for each separate category.Basic elements of fi gure skating performed in various competitions are presented in Table 1.

Table 2 .
Points which can be gained by executing a layback spin

Table 4 .
Guidelines for judges with possible errors